What are media?
From Plato and the analysis of the influence of writing to Marshall McLuhan with the systemization of an analysis of media, philosophers have always had a great interest in media (even if the use of the word media is itself very recent), and their relationship to culture. Two main positions about a definition of media have been developed. Here, we will quickly present these two philosophical positions about a definition of media, illustrate with examples and try to explain their consequences on media studies.
The first important position upon media is a communication-centered approach. Indeed, for many philosophers, we speak about media as tools allowing communication. In this respect, media would be a “mean of communication” (Briggs and Burke, p.1). Communication, as an etymological analysis seems to imply, is what makes something common in a specific context. Thus, four characteristics seem worthy to focus on in this conception of media as a tool of communication.
First, this focus on communication in media studies implies an interest for the content. It is to be identified with the “what” of mediation. (Briggs and Burke, p.4). In this view, what is important here is the message: whether media carry information, entertainment, fiction, philosophy, or laws is important in media studies. For instance, the fact that the first printed book was the Bible is fundamental for the supporters of this conception of media. Or, as Briggs and Burke show (p.3), the persistence of the theme of a flying superman, whether it is found in nowadays comics, or in Jacopo Tintoretto’s St Mark rescuing a slave shows that the message has a great importance for the media.
Second, in this communication-centered approach of the media, the protagonists of such a communication that is the sender and the audience are also important. It corresponds to the “who” and the “whom” of mediation. For example, we know that in Plato writings, there were a difference between esoteric texts, that is texts which were designed for the little circle of initiated disciples of the Academia, and exoteric texts, that were texts designed for a larger audience. We might infer that this difference was present in Plato intentions, in his manner of writing, the words he used, as well as in the comprehension of his readers. Thus, the fact that a media is designed by a specific sender for a specific audience has certainly a great importance in media.
The third characteristic of media in a communication-centered approach is technology that is the proper mean that carries the content from the sender to the audience. It is to be identified with the “how” of mediation. For instance, the “communication revolution” of the past 30 years, constituted by innovations in television, telephone and networked-computer technologies, has had great influence on our ways of communicating such as “the death of the distance” that is the irrelevance of the distance between the sender and the audience (Bucy, p.3-7).
The fourth and last characteristic of media in a communication-centered approach is the context in which communication is performed. It correspond to the “Where” and “When” of mediation. Indeed, it implies that depending on the context, whether it is historical, cultural, economical or political context, media are not used in the same way, or for the same aims. For instance, during the Second World War, radio has been used for propaganda in , whereas in it has been used for resistance and coded communication between and .
To sum up, the communication-centered approach of the media focus on the content, the protagonists, the technology and the context. Therefore, this conception of media leads to consider every mean of communication as a media: bodily gestures, speech, painting, writing, printing, telegraph, telephone, television, the internet… Moreover, it emphasizes the influence of culture on media.
But some authors, starting with Marshall McLuhan, consider that on the contrary the influence of media on culture has a greater importance, and that media are not just mean of communication but rather culture determinations. Three basic features of this conception of media can be summarized in three catch sentences: “the medium as an extension of the man” (McLuhan, p.4), “the medium is the message” (McLuhan, p.7), and “the medium is the metaphor” (Postman, p.3).
Firstly, according to Marshall McLuhan, a medium is an extension of the man. Indeed, from the use of stone as more effective hands to the use of phone as more effective ears, men have always used things to increase their power, their control, their grasping of the world. Therefore, McLuhan considers everything that extends our “mechanical body” (tools, clothes, bike, car…), our sense perceptions (eyes-glasses, telephone, television…), and our “electrical body” that is consciousness (information technologies: speech, writing, the internet, television, radio…) as media. This conception of media is really striking. Indeed, who could have thought of a stone as a medium?
Secondly, according to McLuhan, the “medium is the message”. In fact, McLuhan considers that if a medium is an extension of ourselves, thus it shapes our conception of ourselves and our conception of the world (McLuhan, p.7). In one word, a medium shapes our culture. Moreover, there is a difference between medium without content (such as electric light, McLuhan, p.8-9), and medium with content (such as writing). For the latter we ought to differentiate the medium and the content, the content being itself another medium and thus another message. For instance, McLuhan considers electric light as a medium (McLuhan, p.8-9). As an extension of our vision during night, the electric light allows us to do some activities that would not be possible otherwise, for instance working in a factory during the night. These activities are themselves the content of electric light as a medium, not its message. But in allowing activities, the electric light is a message that shapes our culture: our conception of time (especially the difference between day and night), our conception of ourselves (allowing us to do some activities during the night)…
At last, Neil Postman has developed a conception of medium as a metaphor (Postman, p.3), in the case of medium with content. Indeed, he shows that there is a close connection between the content and the form in which this content is mediated: “You cannot use smoke to do philosophy” (p.7). But, I would add, you can do a philosophy of smoke, not using smoke but a metaphorical representation of smoke. As a matter of fact, media have a metaphorical functioning: they give a representation of information, not the information itself. Thus, in Postman mind, media shape the users idea of their content. For example, he considers clock as a medium-metaphor: it carries information: time, but also, in giving a representation of time in seconds, minutes and hours, it shapes the user’s conception of time as “moment to moment” (p.11).
Television is ruining a serious and coherent understanding of the world. (Comment on this statement with the help of the literature provided. Argue how this could be true or not and explain your own position in this)
In a bit more than 50 years, television has taken a greater and greater importance in our lives, in terms of time (how many hours do we spend behind our TV screen), in terms of communication (the place TV has in our communication with other people), and in terms of culture (the place TV has in our access to culture). It has gone so far that some people thinks that, as Neil Postman (p.78) puts in, “television has achieved the status of a meta-medium”, that is a media that not only partly defines our knowledge, but also determines our ways of knowing, our access to the world. Therefore TV culture may not only be on TV, but also in the approach of reality, and in other media, such as books. Acknowledging such an importance leads to consider as fundamental the questions about television culture, television’s characteristics as a media, about the media itself and its influence on human culture rather than a pure content-centred approach. We will first quickly present Neil Postman theoretical assumptions about television culture, and then in this respect we will discuss whether television ruins a serious and coherent understanding of the world, or not.
First, Neil Postman gives his conception of media that is medium as a metaphor. Indeed, he considers that a specific medium presents content in a certain way, not as such but in a metaphorical way (Postman, p.3). The clock for example presents time in the form of seconds, minutes and hours (Postman, p.7). Thus a medium shapes our own representation of reality. Even if we know that seconds, minutes and hours are conventions, it is hard to conceive time without these representations. So, understanding the metaphors used by television to represent reality may indicates us how it shapes our representation of reality. This conception of media leads Postman to consider “media as epistemology” (p.16), that is to say that different media carry different conceptions of truth. For example, truth in oral societies (often in the form of proverbs) is very different from truth in literate societies (in the form of deductive logic).
This theoretical introduction is indeed very useful to know whether television is ruining a serious and coherent understanding of the world or not. Seriousness and coherence are indeed associated with writing and a written-based epistemology, writing fitting more or less with the laws of deductive (and therefore coherent) logic Aristotle has written about. So here, we will try to see how, in which form television presents reality, especially on the grounds of coherence and seriousness.
According to Postman, television is incoherent by nature. Indeed, knowing in television-based epistemology is knowledge of things, not knowledge about things (Postman, p.70). So, in a pure television culture you may know a lot of things, but you cannot understand their implications, causes, consequences, and the context in which they take place. Indeed, television presents decontextualized information, and therefore television culture does not allow one to link two events, to think about the causes and consequences. As Postman puts in, with a bit of irony, the only link between two events we have on TV is “Now…This” (Postman, p.99). Television shows a flux of information, that is an inconstant (rather than constant), moving (rather than fixed), flowing (rather than posed), superposed (rather than linear) information. To sum up, coherence is not part of television culture. At the opposite, the richness and plurality of logic links in literate culture, maybe due to the linear format of writing, allows one to draw some coherent links between two different pieces of information.
The other point Postman emphasizes is the lack of seriousness in television, but this point needs a closer attention. Indeed, Postman does not criticize entertainment as such, but rather deplores the fact that everything that is presented on television is naturally presented in the form of entertainment (Postman, p.87). The fact that entertainment is the only way of showing things on television may be due to the audience expectations, the TV directors will or other causes. But the cause are not as important as the fact that it is the case, that even for serious topic such as a nuclear holocaust, the television does not allow reflection but emphasizes entertaining rather than seriousness through its format (Postman, pp 88-91).
We can hardly discuss Postman points about the incoherent and entertaining nature of television format, or his points about how a medium shapes our understanding of the world. Indeed, it seems rather indubitable. But we can argue whether it is better or worse than coherence and seriousness. According to Postman, television-based epistemology is definitely worse than writing-based epistemology (but being himself a book writer, we might doubt his objectivity in that matter…). I think that Postman misses a point. Indeed it does not mention that television is a mass-media and that writing has always been an elite-media, and will probably always be. A television-culture does not replace a literate culture because it does not reach the same audience. Those who are literate watch television with their literate culture and therefore have a very critical view upon it whereas those who have television culture read books with their television culture and are therefore very critical upon it. I do not think that the question whether it is good or bad is a constructive one, but to see that mass-media are based on incoherence and entertaining whereas elite-media are based on coherence and seriousness is, in my opinion far more instructive and constructive. I understand those who say that reading Kant is “boring” and “too complicated”, even if Kant is one of the most coherent and serious writers of all times. And I also understand those who say that television is incoherent and too much entertaining regarding serious topics even if a very well presented information. Neil Postman book format is itself based on this striking idea: it is a book, so rather designated (unintentionally) to a certain elite, but at the same time it is entertaining, and sometimes incoherent (the links between examples and arguments are sometimes very hard to get…). Doing that, Neil Postman undermines the idea of a medium-determinism he tries to argue for in his book. Thus, he perhaps (secretly?) argues for a “literalization” of television culture. If he does not, I would.
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